THE EARLY HISTORY OF CELLULAR TELEPHONE
Thursday 12 April 2012Posted by
Crystal
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y. Okumura, E. Ohmori, T. Kawano, and K. Fukuda, “Field Strength and its Variability in VHF and UHF Land Mobile Service”, Review of the Electronic Communications Laboratory, September-October, 1968.
J. S. Engel, “The Effects of Multipath Transmission on the Measured Propagation Delay of an FM Signal”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, May, 1969.
L. Schiff and H. Staras, “A Dispersed-Array Mobile Radio System”, RCA Engineer, October/November, 1969.
W.G. Figel, N.H. Sheperd, and W.H. Trammell, “Vehicle Location by a Signal Attenuation Method”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, November, 1969.
J. S. Engel, “The Effects of Cochannel Interference on the Parameters of a Small-Cell Mobile Telephone System”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, November, 1969.
L. Schiff, “Traffic Capacity of Three Types of Common-User Mobile Radio Systems, IEEE Transactions on Communications, February, 1970.
L. Schiff and H. Staras, “A Dynamic Space-Division Multiplex Mobile Radio System”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, May, 1970.
R.H. Frenkiel, “A High-Capacity Mobile Radiotelephone System Model Using a Coordinated Small-Zone Approach”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, May, 1970.
L. Schiff and H. Staras, ”Spectrum Conservation in the Land Mobile Radio Services”, IEEE Spectrum, July, 1971.
L. Schiff and H. Staras, “Improved Spectrum Utilization in the Land Mobile Radio Service”, Telecommunications, October, 1970.
P.T. Porter, “Supervision and Control Features of a Small-Zone Radiotelephone System”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, August, 1971.
IEEE Transactions on Communications, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, November, 1973.
G.L. Turin, W.S. Jewell, and T.L. Johnson, “Simulation of Urban Vehicle-Monitoring Systems”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, February, 1972.
H.L. Hanig, “The Characterization of Environmental Man-made Noise at 821 MHz”, Symposium on Microwave Mobile Communications, Boulder, CO, 1972.
D.M. Black and D.O. Reudink, Some Characteristics of Radio Propagation at 800 MHz in the Philadelphia Area”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, May, 1972.
D.C. Cox and D.O. Reudink, “Effects of Some Nonuniform Spatial Demand Profiles on Mobile Radio System Performance”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, May, 1972.
K.L. Steigerwalt, “Vehicle Location by the Phase Ranging Technique”, Symposium on Microwave Mobile Communications, Boulder, CO, 1974
W.C. Jakes, Jr., Microwave Mobile Communications, Wiley, 1974.
D.C. Cox and R.C. Leck, “Distributions of Multipath Delay Spread and Average Excess Delay for 910 MHz Urban Mobile Radio Paths”, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, March, 1975.
Advanced Mobile Phone System, Bell System Technical Journal, January, 1979.
THE EARLY HISTORY OF CELLULAR TELEPHONE
Posted by
Crystal
The system would initially be built covering the service area with hexagonal cells as large as possible while providing reliable coverage. The size of the largest cells would depend on terrain and, in the Technical Report, was conservatively estimated to be five miles in radius. (In the later trial system, covering the flatlands of Chicago, they were ten miles in radius.) An important contribution by Phil Porter was that the base stations would be placed at alternate corners of the cells, each base station having three directional antennas radiating into the three coterminous cells. Analyses indicated that sufficient spacing between co-channel cells to avoid interference could be achieved with a repeating pattern of seven cells, each assigned a unique set of channels. In addition to the voice channels, there would be paging and control channels to locate the mobile units by signal strength, assign the channels, and hand the call off to a new base station on a new channel when the mobile unit crossed a cell boundary.
It was recognized that the telephone traffic would not be uniform over the service area, and vehicular traffic density and population density were studied, first for greater Philadelphia and then extrapolated to other metropolitan areas. As the number of users, and their usage, increased, the cells with the highest traffic would reach the limit of the capacity of their assigned channels, and would be split to one-half the radius by adding intermediate base stations, requiring a redistribution of the channels to the cells. A second split to one-half the radius again would occur after even further growth. An essential algorithm was developed by Dick Frenkiel that allowed the growth to occur smoothly, without requiring quantum steps in system cost.
Following the filing of the Bell Laboratories Technical Report, interest further intensified. An annual Symposium on Microwave Mobile Communications was held at the Bureau of Standards in Boulder, Colorado. In November of 1973, a joint special issue of the IEEE Transactions on Communications and Transactions on Vehicular Technology was dedicated to cellular mobile radio. In January, 1979, an issue of the Bell System Technical Journal was devoted to the Advanced Mobile Phone Service.
The use of the word, “ultimately” to describe the deployment is appropriate. The opposition by the television broadcasters and the manufacturers continued, but, even after that was settled, thanks to the skills of Lou Weinberg, the regulatory guru on mobile radio at AT&T, and the spectrum was allocated, there was an additional long delay. This was an era when the FCC was committed to introducing competition into the telecommunications industry, and mobile telephone was a prime candidate. The FCC allocated one half of the spectrum, which came to called the “A” channels, to the radio common carriers, and the other half, the “B” channels, to the wireline telephone companies. The carriers were requested to submit detailed applications for assignment of the spectrum in the various metropolitan areas, including demonstrations of technical and financial qualifications. That split assignment created a classic example of the law of unintended consequences.
The wireline telephone companies were regulated utilities, chartered to provide service in specified areas. As a general rule, in any given geographical area, there was one wireline telephone company that was chartered to provide service. Even in cities such as Los Angeles, where both Pacific Telephone and General Telephone provided service, the boundaries between them were well defined. As a result, each application by a wireline telephone company for the B channels faced no competing application. But, in the major metropolitan areas, there were multiple competing applications for the A channels. The radio common carriers argued that, if the wireline telephone companies were allowed to begin offering service while the competing radio common carrier applications were being resolved, the wireline companies would capture the market and the radio carriers would not be able to catch up. The FCC agreed, and held up the wireline carrier applications until the radio carrier applications were resolved. After many years of attempting to resolve the competing applications, the FCC instituted a lottery for the A channels in order to break the logjam, and, in 1984, allowed commercial service. By that time, the breakup of the Bell System had taken place, and the makeup of the entire US telecommunications industry was vastly altered.
During this hiatus, the FCC did allow AT&T to build a trial system in the Chicago area, large enough, and with sufficient users, to test both the technical and market feasibility of the service. Chicago was chosen because the Bell Laboratories engineers responsible for the switching system were located there and could perform any early troubleshooting that would be required. When, in 1984, the FCC allowed commercial service, that system, operated by Illinois Bell, became the first commercial cellular telephone system in the United States.
That qualifier, “in the United States”, is necessary because the thirteen year delay only occurred in the US. By filing the Bell Laboratories Technical Report with the FCC, AT&T had put the design of the AMPS system into the public domain. Common carriers in other countries, most notably the Scandinavian countries and Japan, quickly implemented the system and began offering service.
Since this piece is intended for publication by a technical organization, I will leave it for others to expound on the irony that the FCC, in its commitment to the belief that competition would foster innovation, actually delayed innovation in the US for over a decade, while other countries allowed their citizens to enjoy the benefits of the technology developed here.
In the years since, cellular telephone has evolved in many ways. The transmission is now digital, and new bands of frequencies have been allocated. New data, messaging, and even video services have been developed. And the size, weight, and power requirements have been reduced to the point that portable units have replaced vehicle mounted units. But all of these advances still rely on the cellular concept of reusing frequencies in multiple small cells within a contiguous service area to achieve the necessary capacity within a limited spectrum.
THE EARLY HISTORY OF CELLULAR TELEPHONE
Posted by
Crystal
I have been asked to write a piece on the early history of cellular telephone, as one who was a participant in the earliest system studies. As I will describe shortly, I do not use the phrase, “in at the beginning”, because there really is no identifiable beginning to the cellular concept.
In 1967, I was assigned to a group at Bell Laboratories with responsibility for the switching systems for mobile telephone. At that time there was a mobile telephone service, but it was extremely limited. There were eleven channels in the 150 MHz band assigned to the wireline telephone companies, and a similar set of channels assigned to competitive radio common carriers. The system design consisted of a high power transmitter (and a receiver) mounted on the tallest building available at roughly the center of the desired coverage area. Nearby systems interfered with one another, and could not use the same channels. For example, Newark and Belle Meade, New Jersey, Hempstead, Long Island, and White Plains, New York, all interfered with Manhattan, and the eleven channels had to be distributed among them. As a result, only three channels could be assigned to Manhattan, allowing only three simultaneous telephone calls; all other attempts would be blocked. There were long waiting lists for service, but, even allowing for high blocking rates, not enough subscribers could be allowed on the system for it to be economically feasible. A second block of twelve channels was allocated, in the 450 MHz band, but, given the economics of the 150 MHz system, very few of the 450 MHz systems were deployed.
The mobile radios also consumed significant battery power. There were some portable units, mounted in attache cases, but the unit was generally mounted in a vehicle and used its electric system. A common saying at the time, probably an exaggeration, was that if the vehicle engine broke down, and one used the mobile telephone to call for assistance, the call had better succeed the first time, because there wouldn’t be enough battery for a second call.
I’ve already laid the groundwork, above, for explaining the long history of the cellular concept. Although the interfering systems required different channels, the channels could be reused in systems that were far enough removed, and were reused many times across the country. This was, in concept, a cellular system, except that the cells were very large and they were not contiguous, with large gaps in coverage. On reflection, it is obvious that the concept of reusing frequencies in geographically separated areas goes back to the earliest days of broadcast radio, and continued with the assignment of channels to broadcast television stations across the country, also without providing continuous coverage.
At Bell Laboratories at that time, one was expected to go beyond one’s immediate assignment, and to explore possibilities in related areas. Although my assignment was in switching, I had a background and interest in radio transmission, and I soon made contact with two engineers in the radio systems development department, Dick Frenkiel and Phil Porter, who were already conceptualizing a cellular system reusing channels within a metropolitan area, and I joined them in that work. And even they were not the first; there had been earlier suggestions that such a system might be possible.
For the next couple of years, we wrote internal Bell Laboratories memoranda on various aspects of cellular system design, including analyses of how close co-channel cells could be spaced, how cell size could be varied depending on telephone traffic, various methods of identifying the cell in which a mobile unit was located, etc. And then, lightening struck.
Much earlier, shortly after World War II had ended, AT&T had made a request to the FCC for the allocation of a broad band of spectrum in the 450 MHz band. At the same time, there was a competing request from the television broadcasters for the same spectrum, and the FCC gave the allocation to UHF television, channels 14 to 83. Twenty years later, in 1968, the FCC observed that UHF television had not developed as expected, and the channels were sparsely used. Opening Docket 18262, they requested comments on a potential re-allocation of channels 70 to 83, providing 84 MHz of contiguous spectrum in the 900 MHz band (plus about 31 MHz of spectrum in some other smaller segments) to mobile telephone. The FCC made it clear that they wanted proposals for systems that were much more efficient in their use of spectrum than the then current systems described above. The opening of the Docket stimulated interest across the industry, and papers began to be published.*
The proposed re-allocation of spectrum met with considerable political opposition. The television broadcasters did not want any spectrum to be taken away. On another front, the manufacturers of mobile radio equipment, led by Motorola, opposed the assignment of a large block of spectrum to the common carriers. At that time, while mobile telephone, allowing connection to the public telephone network, was a very limited service, there was a very significant use of mobile radio for dispatch systems, in which a central dispatcher could communicate with a fleet of, for example, taxis, delivery trucks, repair crews, etc. The suppliers of such systems argued for the spectrum to be assigned for dispatch use.
Although AT&T was eager to reply with a proposal for a system that was spectrally efficient, there was some concern within Bell Laboratories as to whether the cellular system was technically feasible, and not only because the sole technical support for the concept was the product of three very young engineers. One needs to recall the state of technology at that time. The very earliest (four bit) microprocessors were being explored in the laboratory, and the functionality of a cellular mobile telephone would require significant data processing within the unit. At that time, the transmitted frequency of a mobile radio was maintained by a crystal in a temperature controlled oven, approximately one inch square and two to three inches tall, one such for each channel for which the radio was equipped. Clearly, a mobile radio having access to 800 channels was not feasible using the current technology, and the earliest digital frequency synthesizers were also just being developed in the laboratory. The most advanced telephone switching systems were still analog, and although they were controlled by digital processors, these were special purpose machines, very different in architecture from general purpose computers. For the system to work, a number of emerging technologies all had to mature successfully at the time they were needed. Based on the experience I have since acquired over my career, I would have been concerned as well. Many years later, I was interviewed about those early days, and I was asked when, in the course of the development, we realized that the system was actually going to work. I answered that we were very young at the time, not yet scarred by failure, and we always knew that it would work.
The culture at Bell Laboratories was to encourage innovation, and to provide nourishment to new ideas, and an exploratory development program was initiated. Dick Frenkiel, Phil Porter, and I formed the nucleus of a systems engineering group, to which others were recruited, under a radio pioneer named Rae Young. The treaty had just been signed banning anti-ballistic missile systems, and work on such systems at Bell Laboratories was discontinued. A department of state-of-the-art microwave engineers from that work, headed by Bob Mattingly, supported by Jerry DiPiazza, Reed Fisher, and George Smith, was re-assigned to develop the early proof-of-feasibility prototypes of the radio system. A group of switching systems engineers, headed by Zack Fluhr, was assigned to explore the hardware and software necessary to control the cellular system and connect the calls to the public telephone network. Comprehensive measurements and characterization of propagation at these frequencies had been performed in Japan by a team led by Y. Okumura, and he visited Bell Laboratories to discuss his work with the team. Over the next two years, experimental mini-systems consisting of a few base stations were built, and a system design was developed. In December of 1971, AT&T submitted to the FCC a Bell Laboratories Technical Report that presented the system design for the Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) system that ultimately was deployed.
* The attached Bibliography lists a number of the papers, special issues of journals, and even a book on cellular mobile radio. I am indebted to Dick Frenkiel for searching out many of them (as well as for reviewing this paper and filling the gaps in my memory). At this late date, it is certainly not comprehensive.
Introduction to the microprocessor
Posted by
Crystal
1.2 What is a microprocessor?
The microprocessor uses the same type of logic that is used in a digital computer’s central processing unit (CPU). Because it is similar to the CPU and it is constructed with microcircuit (IC) technology. The microprocessor has digital circuit for data handling and computation under program control. (The microprocessor is a data processing unit) Data processing is the microprocessor’s main function. Data processing includes both computation and data handling. Computation is performed by logic circuits that make up what is usually called the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). These logic circuits enable us to use functions that cause data changes. Among these functions are Add, Subtract, AND, OR, XOR, Compare, Increment, and Decrement. The ALU cannot perform any of these functions with out data operation on. In order to process data, the microprocessor must have control logic which tells the microprocessor how to decode and execute the program.
The control logic steps the microprocessors through the stored program steps (instructions) in memory. It calls (fetches) them one at a time. After the instruction is fetched, the microprocessor’s control logic decodes the instruction. Then the control logic carries out (executes) the decoded instruction. Because the instructions are stored in memory, you can change them when you want to.
Review: The microprocessor’s purpose is to process data. To do this, it must have logic to process and handle data, and control logic. The processing logic moves data from place and performs operations on the data.
Microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable, clock-driven, register-base, electronic device that reads binary instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and processes data according to those instructions, and provides results as output.
1.2.1 4 components of microprocessor
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 |
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- The physical components of this system are called hardware.
- A set of instructions written for the microprocessor to perform a task is called a program.
- A group of programs is called software.
The microprocessors applications are classified primarily in two categories: reprogrammable systems and embedded systems. In reprogrammable systems, such as microcomputers, the microprocessor is used for computing and data processing, a Personal Computer (PC) is a typical illustration. In an embedded system, the microprocessor is a part of a final product and is not available for reprogramming to the end user.
The microprocessor operates in binary digits, 0 and 1, also known as bits. Bit is an abbreviation for the term binary digit. These digits are represented in terms of electrical voltages.
Each microprocessor recognizes and processes a group of bits called the word, and microprocessor are classified according to their word length. The fact that the microprocessor is programmable means it can be instructed to perform given tasks within its capability. The instructions are entered or stored in a storage device called memory, which can be read by the microprocessor.
Memory is like the pages of a notebook with space for a fixed number of binary numbers on each line.
1.2.2 The microprocessor operations
The microprocessors fetches (gets) an instruction
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The control logic decodes what the instruction says to do
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Decoding
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The microprocessor executes (carries out) the instruction
(Fetch-and-execute cycle, or the fetch/execute cycle)
1.3 Microprocessor Microcomputer
The microprocessor is the heart of many products, but the microprocessor is never a complete, working by itself. It still needs I/O, memory, data storage or program storage and power.
1.3.1 What is a microcomputer?
The words “Microprocessor” and “Microcomputer” are used to mean the same thing, but in fact these words have different meanings. The microprocessor is an IC (data processing and control). The microcomputer is a complete computing system built around a microprocessor.
1.3.2 What is the power of a microprocessor?
Almost all microprocessors are made on silicon die (IC). These ICs are about ¼ inch (in), or 0.64 centimeters (cm), on a side. The power of a microprocessor is its capacity to process data. These are three main measures of the power of a microprocessor: the length of the microprocessor’s data word; the number of memory words that the microprocessor can address; and the speed with which the microprocessor can execute an instruction.
The lengths of microprocessor’s data words are including 4 bits, 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits and 64 bits. The 8 bits data word is so common that it has been given the special name byte. Because the byte is so commonly used, 16 bit microprocessors often have instructions that let them process their 16 bits data word in two 8 bit bytes.
Figure: A 16bit digital word showing the high and low byte breakdown
The 4 bit microprocessor was the first one developed. Microprocessors of this word length are still popular in some types of work. Four bits is the length needed for a binary-coded decimal (BCD) numbers. In some applications, including; calculators, simple consumer products and toys, the microprocessor deals only with BCD numbers. The 8 bits word length was the next developed after the 4 bits.
1.3.3 The advantages of 8 bit microprocessor
1. The 8 bit word length is twice 4 bits.
2. The 8 bit word length allows two BCD numbers for each CPU data word
3. The 8 bit word length can hold all the data needed for one character in
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASC II), ASCII characters are used widely in data processing to represent numbers, letters, and many special symbols.
Each time the microprocessor’s word length doubles, the processor becomes more powerful. Greater word lengths have required improved LSI technology. For example, the LSI used to develop some of the new 64 bit microprocessors uses a similar sized chip, but it comes over 23 million transistors.
Another common measure of microprocessor power is the number of memory bytes that the microprocessor can address. For example, a 4 bit microprocessor stores 4 bit word in memory. The length of the data word is the same as the length of the data word used by the microprocessor. Each word in memory is assigned a location number or address.
| Binary Address | | Memory contents (4 bits long) |
| 1111 | | Data word 15 |
| 1110 | | Data word 14 |
| 1101 | | Data word 13 |
| 1100 | | Data word 12 |
| 1011 | | Data word 11 |
| 1010 | | Data word 10 |
| 1001 | | Data word 9 |
| 1000 | | Data word 8 |
| 0111 | | Data word 7 |
| 0110 | | Data word 6 |
| 0101 | | Data word 5 |
| 0100 | | Data word 4 |
| 0011 | | Data word 3 |
| 0010 | | Data word 2 |
| 0001 | | Data word 1 |
| 0000 | | Data word 0 |
Figure: A 16bit word memory addressed by a 4bit
Figure shows the memory-addressing power of single 4 bit word. 4 bits can address 16 words in memory. We number these 16 words from 0 to 15. A single 8 bit word has an address range of 256 memory words. A 16 bit word has an address range of 65,536 memory words. Most microprocessors can use more than a single word to address memory. Therefore the memory address range is not limited by the length of the microprocessor’s data word.
A shorthand notation is used in specifying the number of bytes. The symbol “K” is used to say “times 1000”. The symbol “M” means “times 1 million”. The symbol “G” means “times 1 billion”.
| Data word length | 4bit | 8bit | 16bit | 32bit |
| Memory address range | 4096k | | | |
| 8192k | | | | |
| | 65,536(64k) | | | |
| | | 32,768(32k) | | |
| | | 65,536(64k) | | |
| | | 1,048,576(1M) | | |
| | | 2,097,152(2M) | | |
| | | 4,194,304(4M) | | |
| | | | 4,294,967,296(4G) | |
| | | | 34,359,738,367(32G) |
A third common measure of microprocessor power is the speed with which microprocessor executes an instruction. Speed is determined by the time it takes the microprocessor to complete the fetch / execute cycle for one program step. Some microprocessors are 20 to 100 times faster than others. Each one has oscillator circuit is called the microprocessor’s clock. Slow microprocessors may use a clock that at a few hundred kilohertz (KHz). It takes such a microprocessor 10 to 20 microseconds (ms) to execute one instruction.
1.4 Microprocessor-Based System with Bus Architecture
ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit) – It performs such arithmetic operations as addition and subtraction, and such logic operations as AND, OR, and XOR. Results are stored either in registers or in memory.
Register Array – It consists of various registers identified by letter such as B, C, D, E, H, L, IX, and IY. These registers are used to store data and addresses temporarily during the execution of a program.
Control Unit – The control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals to all the operations in the microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the microprocessor and memory and peripherals.
Input – The input section transfers data and instructions in binary from the outside world to the microprocessor. It includes such devices as a keyboard, switches, a scanner, and an analog-to-digital converter.
Output – The output section transfers data from the microprocessor to such output devices as LED, CRT, printer, magnetic tape, or another computer.
Memory – It stores such binary information as instructions and data, and provides that information to the microprocessor. To execute programs, the microprocessor reads instructions and data from memory and performs the computing operations in its ALU section. Results are either transferred to the output section for display or stored in memory for later use.
System bus – It is a communication path between the microprocessor and peripherals. The microprocessor communicates with only one peripheral at a time. The timing is provided by the control unit of the microprocessor.
1.5 Microprocessor Instruction Set and Computer Languages
The word (or word length), is the number of bits the microprocessor recognizes and processes at a time. The word length ranges from 4 bits for small microprocessor, to 64 bits for high-end microcomputers.
The byte is defined as a group of eight bits. The term “nibble”, which stands for a group of four bits, is also found in popular computer magazines and books.
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